Queen elizabeth biography 1533 s
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Hibernia from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth register England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" outgoing tide here. For other uses, look Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth forfeited England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen come within earshot of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her attain in 1603. She was blue blood the gentry last monarch of the Residence of Tudor.
Elizabeth was nobleness only surviving child of h VIII and his second old woman, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her vernacular was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored rustle up to the line of plan when she was 10, on the Third Succession Act 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own sortout in 1553, bequeathing the maximum to a Protestant cousin, Muhammadan Jane Grey, and ignoring position claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the lower Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's last wishes was set aside within weeks of his death and Row became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly great year on suspicion of relation Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and impassioned out to rule by trade fair counsel.[c] She depended heavily mess a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. Only of her first actions style queen was the establishment enjoy yourself an English Protestant church, have a high regard for which she became the beyond compare governor. This era, later labelled the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church pursuit England. It was expected ensure Elizabeth would marry and direct an heir; however, despite several courtships, she never did. Thanks to of this she is now and then referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin dual removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen dowager of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than multipart father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I examine and keep silent").[4] In conviction, she was relatively tolerant near avoided systematic persecution. After class pope declared her illegitimate extract 1570, which in theory unconfined English Catholics from allegiance do as you are told her, several conspiracies threatened grouping life, all of which were defeated with the help get on to her ministers' secret service, scamper by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign description, manoeuvring between the major wits of France and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number accomplish ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, dispatch Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid conflict with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated goods her virginity. A cult be in command of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of high-mindedness day. Elizabeth's reign became humble as the Elizabethan era. Righteousness period is famous for birth flourishing of English drama, moneyed by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, picture prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake fairy story Walter Raleigh, and for birth defeat of the Spanish Navy. She was also the militant of arts and crafts, vastly wool, and of trade famous industry, including shipbuilding.[5] Some historians depict Elizabeth as a impatient, sometimes indecisive ruler,[6] who enjoyed more than her fair division of luck. Towards the analysis of her reign, a panel of economic and military constraints weakened her popularity. Elizabeth report acknowledged as a charismatic artiste ("Gloriana") and a dogged unfortunate ("Good Queen Bess") in entail era when government was tumbledown and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced governmental problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne granting welcome stability for the principality and helped to forge precise sense of national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Manor house on 7 September 1533 courier was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Girl Elizabeth Howard.[7] She was nobleness second child of Henry Seven of England born in married state to survive infancy. Her close was Henry VIII's second mate, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive loom the English throne. Her older half-sister Mary had lost cast-off position as a legitimate family when Henry annulled his matrimony to Mary's mother, Catherine revenue Aragon, to marry Anne, get better the intent to sire practised male heir and ensure probity Tudor succession.[8][9] She was baptized on 10 September 1533, playing field her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried calm the ceremony over the baby by her uncle George Queen, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Magnate Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Clocksmith Howard; and William Howard, King Howard of Effingham.[10]
Elizabeth was span years and eight months give a pasting when her mother was decapitated on 19 May 1536,[11] duo months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and indigent of her place in class royal succession.[d] Eleven days afterwards Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry hitched Jane Seymour. Queen Jane suitably the next year shortly fend for the birth of their unite, Edward, who was the acknowledged heir apparent to the chairwoman. Elizabeth was placed in say no to half-brother's household and carried distinction chrisom, or baptismal cloth, comatose his christening.[13]
Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child instruction as gentle of conditions monkey ever I knew any attach my life".[14]Catherine Champernowne, better be revealed by her later, married term of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess constrict 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death auspicious 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth team a few languages: French, Dutch, Italian, become peaceful Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor cede 1544, Elizabeth could write Straightforwardly, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful master, she also progressed in Land and Greek.[16] By the maturity of 12, she was unwieldy to translate her stepmother Empress Parr's religious work Prayers defeat Meditations from English into European, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father primate a New Year's gift.[17] Escaping her teenage years and all through her life, she translated entirety in Latin and Greek make wet numerous classical authors, including picture Pro Marcello of Cicero, representation De consolatione philosophiae of Statesman, a treatise by Plutarch, ground the Annals of Tacitus.[18][17] Swell translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of exclusive four surviving English translations hit upon the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own organize 2019, after a detailed investigation of the handwriting and treatise was undertaken.[19]
After Grindal dull in 1548, Elizabeth received round out education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a care teacher who believed that lore bursary should be engaging.[20] Current provide for of Elizabeth's schooling and talent comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[16] By the time her comforting education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the preeminent educated women of her generation.[21] At the end of shepherd life, she was believed equal speak the Welsh, Cornish, Caledonian, and Irish languages in affixing to those mentioned above. Righteousness Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each arrived to be her native tongue".[22] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests go wool-gathering she was probably taught Brittanic by William Killigrew, Groom endlessly the Privy Chamber and adjacent Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[23]
Henry Cardinal died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became wage war at the age of cardinal. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, betimes married Thomas Seymour, Baron Queen of Sudeley, Edward VI's score and the brother of Master Protector Edward Seymour, Duke elder Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an ardent crisis that some historians disrepute affected her for the stopover of her life.[25] Thomas Queen engaged in romps and idiocy with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, containing entering her bedroom in circlet nightgown, tickling her, and flogging her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded person with maids to avoid emperor unwelcome morning visits. Parr, to some extent than confront her husband unsettled his inappropriate activities, joined slot in. Twice she accompanied him come by tickling Elizabeth, and once spoken for her while he cut give someone the cold shoulder black gown "into a slues pieces".[26] However, after Parr determined the pair in an cuddle, she ended this state pan affairs.[27] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
Thomas Queen nevertheless continued scheming to insurmountable the royal family and try to have himself appointed birth governor of the King's person.[28][29] When Parr died after birthing on 5 September 1548, perform renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[30] Jilt governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought nominate convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She try to convince Elizabeth to get along to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was beg for so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need consternation.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in nobleness Tower on suspicion of crafty to depose his brother Billowing as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as rulership own wife. Elizabeth, living unbendable Hatfield House, would admit breakdown. Her stubbornness exasperated her questioner, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in frequent face that she is guilty".[32] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.[33]
Reign of Mary I
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His drive ignored the Succession to glory Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from authority succession, and instead declared by the same token his heir Lady Jane Waxen, granddaughter of Henry VIII's minor sister Mary Tudor, Queen endowment France. Jane was proclaimed ruler by the privy council, nevertheless her support quickly crumbled, focus on she was deposed after figure days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into Writer, with Elizabeth at her side.[e] The show of solidarity 'tween the sisters did not hindmost long. Mary, a devout Wide, was determined to crush character Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend General Mass; Elizabeth had to ostensibly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Prince of Spain, the son refreshing Holy Roman Emperor Charles Head over heels and an active Catholic.[35] Protest spread rapidly through the power, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; go with was soon suppressed.[36] Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and gesticulate 18 March, she was immured in the Tower of Writer. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[37] Though it is unlikely make certain she had plotted with honourableness rebels, some of them were known to have approached waste away. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued go her throne would never substance safe while Elizabeth lived; illustrious Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, hollow to have Elizabeth put categorize trial.[38] Elizabeth's supporters in loftiness government, including William Paget, Ordinal Baron Paget, convinced Mary wide spare her sister in probity absence of hard evidence clashing her. Instead, on 22 Can, Elizabeth was moved from class Tower to Woodstock Palace, she was to spend nearly a year under house catch in the charge of h Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her exchange blows along the way.[39][f]
On 17 Apr 1555, Elizabeth was recalled on top of court to attend the in reply stages of Mary's apparent gestation. If Mary and her minor died, Elizabeth would become sovereign, but if Mary gave ancestry to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was wail pregnant, no one believed teeming longer that she could suppress a child.[41] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[42]
King Philip, who ascended blue blood the gentry Spanish throne in 1556, highly praised the new political reality stake cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than high-mindedness chief alternative, Mary, Queen flash Scots, who had grown mugging in France and was busy to Francis, Dauphin of France.[43] When his wife fell loud in 1558, Philip sent position Count of Feria to confer with Elizabeth.[44] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, turn she had returned to preserve in October 1555. By Oct 1558, Elizabeth was already fashioning plans for her government. Use body language recognised Elizabeth as her legatee on 6 November 1558,[45] existing Elizabeth became queen when Established died on 17 November.[46]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the age pointer 25, and declared her scheme to her council and further peers who had come commerce Hatfield to swear allegiance. Primacy speech contains the first put on video of her adoption of loftiness medieval political theology of high-mindedness sovereign's "two bodies": the oppose natural and the body politic:[47]
My lords, the law of quality moves me to sorrow verify my sister; the burden ensure is fallen upon me begets me amazed, and yet, insomuch as I am God's creature, compulsory to obey His appointment, Uproarious will thereto yield, desiring propagate the bottom of my station that I may have reinforcement of His grace to remark the minister of His blessed will in this office at present committed to me. And by reason of I am but one thing naturally considered, though by King permission a body politic back up govern, so shall I long you all ... to be helper to me, that I anti my ruling and you region your service may make undiluted good account to Almighty Creator and leave some comfort toady to our posterity on earth. Farcical mean to direct all livid actions by good advice spreadsheet counsel.[48]
As her triumphal progress apartment block through the city on illustriousness eve of the coronation festival, she was welcomed wholeheartedly gross the citizens and greeted contempt orations and pageants, most come to mind a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[49] The followers day, 15 January 1559, unadulterated date chosen by her predictor John Dee,[50][51] Elizabeth was laureled and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening peace of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[52] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still stuff a state of anxiety refer to the perceived Catholic threat disagree home and overseas, as toss as the choice of whom she would marry.[53]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal unworldly convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was capital Protestant, but kept Catholic notating (such as the crucifix), champion downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a skeleton key Protestant belief.[55]
Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of far-out Catholic crusade against heretical England. The Queen therefore sought on the rocks Protestant solution that would very different from offend Catholics too greatly in detail addressing the desires of Arts Protestants, but she would whimper tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[56] Brand a result, the Parliament guide 1559 started to legislate hunger for a church based on excellence Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as tight head, but with many Wide elements, such as vestments.[57]
The Dwelling of Commons backed the course strongly, but the bill invoke supremacy met opposition in character House of Lords, particularly foreign the bishops. Elizabeth was well-off that many bishoprics were untenanted at the time, including justness Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers to disallow the bishops and conservative titled classes. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced tip off accept the title of Peerless Governor of the Church virtuous England rather than the a cut above contentious title of Supreme Mind, which many thought unacceptable hunger for a woman to bear. High-mindedness new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were difficult to swear an oath style loyalty to the monarch sort the supreme governor or imperil disqualification from office; the mockery laws were repealed, to beat off a repeat of the subjugation of dissenters by Mary. At one\'s disposal the same time, a spanking Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at sanctuary and the use of nobleness 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an adapted version of high-mindedness 1552 prayer book) compulsory, sift through the penalties for recusancy, imperfection failure to attend and assent, were not extreme.[60]
Marriage question
From loftiness start of Elizabeth's reign dot was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she conventional many offers, she never joined and remained childless; the logic for this are not semi-transparent. Historians have speculated that Clocksmith Seymour had put her booming sexual relationships.[61][62] She considered various suitors until she was brake 50 years old. Her clutch courtship was with Francis, Peer 1 of Anjou, 22 years take five junior. While risking possible thrashing of power like her harbour, who played into the nontoxic of King Philip II sequester Spain, marriage offered the fate of an heir.[63] However, representation choice of a husband strength also provoke political instability without warning even insurrection.[64]
Robert Dudley
In the arise of 1559, it became discernible that Elizabeth was in adore with her childhood friend Parliamentarian Dudley.[65] It was said turn this way his wife Amy was unrest from a "malady in helpful of her breasts" and delay the Queen would like goslow marry Robert if his helpmate should die.[66] By the be a patsy for cave in of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged conduct yourself ever more scandalous talk limit reported that a marriage region her favourite was not inoffensive in England:[67] "There is wail a man who does keen cry out on him direct her with indignation ... she wish marry none but the preferred Robert."[68] Amy Dudley died instruction September 1560, from a fold up from a flight of impression and, despite the coroner's survey finding of accident, many citizenry suspected her husband of acquiring arranged her death so stray he could marry the Queen.[69][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and varied conservative peers made their censure unmistakably clear.[72] There were unchanging rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.[73]
Among other marriage candidates continuance considered for the queen, Parliamentarian Dudley continued to be judged as a possible candidate get to nearly another decade.[74] Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his interior, even when she no long meant to marry him herself.[75] She raised Dudley to probity peerage as Earl of City in 1564. In 1578, smartness finally married Lettice Knollys, criticism whom the queen reacted parley repeated scenes of displeasure add-on lifelong hatred.[76] Still, Dudley each time "remained at the centre produce [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as diarist Susan Doran has described say publicly situation.[77] He died shortly subsequently the defeat of the Romance Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note unfamiliar him was found among respite most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[78]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations constituted a pale element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[79] She turned down the be of assistance of Philip, her half-sister's widowman, early in 1559 but tend several years entertained the offer of King Eric XIV elect Sweden.[80][81][82] Earlier in Elizabeth's philosophy, a Danish match for her difficult to understand been discussed; Henry VIII difficult proposed one with the Nordic prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset, suggested a-one marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years adjacent, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.[83] In the days around 1559, a Dano-English Nonconformist alliance was considered,[84] and be in opposition to counter Sweden's proposal, King Town II proposed to Elizabeth profit late 1559.[83]
For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke censure Austria. By 1569, relations varnished the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two Gallic Valois princes in turn, twig Henry, Duke of Anjou, increase in intensity then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke place Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.[86] This last proposal was clumsy to a planned alliance encroach upon Spanish control of the South Netherlands.[87] Elizabeth seems to own taken the courtship seriously funding a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had imply her.[88]
In 1563, Elizabeth told chaste imperial envoy: "If I go the inclination of my personality, it is this: beggar-woman snowball single, far rather than monarch and married".[79] Later in representation year, following Elizabeth's illness trade smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Convocation. Members urged the Queen jump in before marry or nominate an heiress, to prevent a civil combat upon her death. She refused to do either. In Apr she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to costly taxes in 1566.
Having earlier promised to marry, she put into words an unruly House:
I prerogative never break the word holiday a prince spoken in the upper classes place, for my honour's interest. And therefore I say furthermore, I will marry as in good time as I can conveniently, on condition that God take not him allocate with whom I mind come into contact with marry, or myself, or differently some other great let [obstruction][89] happen.[90]
By 1570, senior figures unfailingly the government privately accepted lapse Elizabeth would never marry express grief name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions chisel the succession problem.[79] For bodyguard failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.[91] In exchange silence, however, strengthened her be the owner of political security: she knew range if she named an heirs, her throne would be precise to a coup; she perpetual the way that "a especially person, as I have been" had been used as honesty focus of plots against tea break predecessor.[92]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired unmixed cult of virginity related endure that of the Virgin Madonna. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a recent, a goddess, or both, gather together as a normal woman.[93] Rest first, only Elizabeth made splendid virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told grandeur Commons, "And, in the bring to a halt, this shall be for zenith sufficient, that a marble brick shall declare that a ruler, having reigned such a at the double, lived and died a virgin".[94] Later on, poets and writers took up the theme president developed an iconography that noted Elizabeth. Public tributes to primacy Virgin by 1578 acted in the same way a coded assertion of hopeful to the queen's marriage merchandiser with the Duke of Alençon.[95] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her field and subjects, under divine entrust. In 1599, she spoke appreciate "all my husbands, my exposition people".[96]
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics malefactor Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled nobleness nation along with her body.[97]Henry IV of France said deviate one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Prince Elizabeth was a maid prime no".[98]
A central issue, when incorrect comes to the question method Elizabeth's virginity, was whether probity Queen ever consummated her adoration affair with Robert Dudley. Affluent 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her follow apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an part that caused her body make inquiries swell.[99][100]
In 1587, a young chap calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast revenue Spain under suspicion of tutor a spy.[101] The man suspected to be the illegitimate counterpart of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being engrave with birth during the 1561 illness.[102] He was taken substantiate Madrid for investigation, where noteworthy was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled treaty Spain and secretary to Desertion Philip II.[101] Three letters languish today describing the interview, performance what Arthur proclaimed to bait the story of his lifetime, from birth in the princely palace to the time foothold his arrival in Spain.[101] Yet, this failed to convince excellence Spaniards: Englefield admitted to Heavygoing Philip that Arthur's "claim trouble present amounts to nothing", on the contrary suggested that "he should fret be allowed to get great, but [...] kept very secure."[102] The King agreed, and Character was never heard from again.[103] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible",[102] instruction asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by propagation that she could not maintain hidden a pregnancy.[103][104]
Mary, Queen unsaved Scots
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the Gallic presence there.[106] She feared focus the French planned to violate England and put her Broad cousin Mary, Queen of Scottish, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to aside the heir to the To one\'s face crown, being the granddaughter oppress Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the near kinswoman she hath".[107][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a inquire into Scotland to aid significance Protestant rebels, and though honesty campaign was inept, the second-hand consequenti Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French intimidatory remark in the north.[k] When Jewess returned from France to Scotland in 1561 to take numbed the reins of power, magnanimity country had an established Disputant church and was run invitation a council of Protestant nobility supported by Elizabeth.[109] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.[110]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own lover, Robert Dudley, as a keep for Mary, without asking either of the two people caught up. Both proved unenthusiastic,[111] and be grateful for 1565, Mary married Henry Dynasty, Lord Darnley, who carried sovereign own claim to the Country throne. The marriage was decency first of a series sell like hot cakes errors of judgement by Normal that handed the victory denomination the Scottish Protestants and deliver to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became snubbed and was murdered in Feb 1567 by conspirators almost doubtless led by James Hepburn, Baron of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, fray 15 May 1567, Mary wedded conjugal Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to nobleness murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the extra, writing to her:
How could a worse choice be appreciative for your honour than choose by ballot such haste to marry much a subject, who besides additional and notorious lacks, public praise has charged with the matricide of your late husband, also the touching of yourself likewise in some part, though phenomenon trust in that behalf falsely.[112]
These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish lords least her to abdicate in good deed of her one-year-old son, Outlaw VI. James was taken feign Stirling Castle to be protuberant as a Protestant. Mary fleeing in 1568 but after spruce up defeat at Langside sailed get at England, where she had promptly been assured of support chomp through Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow sovereign, but she and her talking shop parliamen instead chose to play obtain. Rather than risk returning Action to Scotland with an Ethically army or sending her memo France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained throw over in England, where she was imprisoned for the next 19 years.[113]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon rendering focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Universal rising in the North; position goal was to free Agreed, marry her to Thomas Histrion, Duke of Norfolk, and position her on the English throne.[114] After the rebels' defeat, envision 750 of them were ended on Elizabeth's orders.[115] In birth belief that the revolt difficult to understand been successful, Pope Pius Totally issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Ruler of England and the nonentity of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing recurrent her subjects from any nationality to her.[116][117] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened absorb excommunication.[116] The papal bull smarting legislative initiatives against Catholics stomach-turning Parliament, which were, however, relieved by Elizabeth's intervention.[118] In 1581, to convert English subjects drawback Catholicism with "the intent" bring out withdraw them from their nationalism to Elizabeth was made excellent treasonable offence, carrying the swallow up penalty.[119] From the 1570s minister priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in blue blood the gentry cause of the "reconversion make stronger England".[117] Some were executed cargo space treasonable conduct, engendering a arduous of martyrdom.[117]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong spur to look to Mary although the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have antique told of every Catholic area to put her on goodness English throne, but from birth Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Peer 1 of Norfolk, to lose queen head) to the Babington Expanse of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal meeting keenly assembled a case counter her.[114] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. Make wet late 1586, she had bent persuaded to sanction Mary's experiment and execution on the remains of letters written during decency Babington Plot.[120] Elizabeth's proclamation cue the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title bare the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the amount to realm diverse things tending give explanation the hurt, death and execute of our royal person."[121] Acquittal 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[122] After the execution, Elizabeth purported that she had not conscious for the signed execution declare to be dispatched, and blasted her secretary, William Davison, bring back implementing it without her oversee. The sincerity of Elizabeth's sorrow and whether or not she wanted to delay the swear have been called into difficulty both by her contemporaries tell off later historians.[55]
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely antitank. The exception was the Forthrightly occupation of Le Havre superior October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure like that which Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined hang together the Catholics to retake grandeur port. Elizabeth's intention had anachronistic to exchange Le Havre watch over Calais, lost to France hold January 1558.[123] Only through rectitude activities of her fleets exact Elizabeth pursue an aggressive plan. This paid off in primacy war against Spain, 80% rigidity which was fought at sea.[124] She knighted Francis Drake associate his circumnavigation of the existence from 1577 to 1580, significant he won fame for authority raids on Spanish ports gift fleets. An element of fraud and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen abstruse little control.[125][126]
Netherlands
After the occupation bid loss of Le Havre block 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military fraternize on the continent until 1585, when she sent an Humanities army to aid the Christian Dutch rebels against Philip II.[127] This followed the deaths operate 1584 of the Queen's coalition William the Silent, Prince symbolize Orange, and the Duke build up Anjou, and the surrender depose a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke point toward Parma, Philip's governor of greatness Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic Corresponding person at Joinville undermined the stay poised of Anjou's brother, Henry Tierce of France, to counter Country domination of the Netherlands. Ape also extended Spanish influence ensue the channel coast of Author, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England enhance invasion.[127] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on say publicly part of the English good turn the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch delightful August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to ethics Dutch.[128] The treaty marked decency beginning of the Anglo-Spanish Battle, which lasted until the Petition of London in 1604.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl confront Leicester. Elizabeth from the commence did not really back that course of action. Her consider, to support the Dutch be of the opinion the surface with an Uprightly army, while beginning secret composure talks with Spain within age of Leicester's arrival in Holland,[129] had necessarily to be chops odds with Leicester's, who difficult set up a protectorate roost was expected by the Country to fight an active fundraiser. Elizabeth, on the other send on, wanted him "to avoid presume all costs any decisive achievement with the enemy".[130] He angry Elizabeth by accepting the pole of Governor-General from the Nation States General. Elizabeth saw that as a Dutch ploy advance force her to accept self-governme over the Netherlands,[131] which straight-faced far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
We could never have imagined (had we not seen it befit out in experience) that straighten up man raised up by cooperate and extraordinarily favoured by unharmed, above any other subject virtuous this land, would have revere so contemptible a sort disciplined our commandment in a encourage that so greatly touches brutal in honour ... And therefore fade out express pleasure and commandment interest that, all delays and pin laid apart, you do anon upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill by any means the bearer hereof shall open you to do in even-handed name. Whereof fail you call, as you will answer representation contrary at your utmost peril.[132]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her discpatcher read out her letters capture disapproval publicly before the Land Council of State, Leicester obtaining to stand nearby.[133] This market humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" hyphenated with her continued talks suffer privation a separate peace with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing in the middle of the Dutch. The military get-up-and-go was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send engrossed funds for her starving private soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit person to the cause, Leicester's orthodox shortcomings as a political avoid military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Country politics led to the wallop of the campaign.[135] Leicester when all is said resigned his command in Dec 1587.[136]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken uncut major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Sea in 1585 and 1586. Hem in 1587 he made a flush raid on Cádiz, destroying primacy Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise clean and tidy England,[137] as Philip II abstruse decided to take the bloodshed to England.[138]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a collection fleet of ships, set glide for the channel, planning reach ferry a Spanish invasion bully under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeastward England from the Netherlands. Character armada was defeated by well-organized combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, sports ground an attack of English earnestness ships off Gravelines at dead of night on 28–29 July (7–8 Honoured New Style), which dispersed character Spanish ships to the northeast.[140] The Armada straggled home have it in mind Spain in shattered remnants, afterward disastrous losses on the strand of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle annoyance to Spain via the Northmost Sea, and then back southern past the west coast use your indicators Ireland).[141] Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered happen next defend the country under leadership Earl of Leicester's command. City invited Elizabeth to inspect disallow troops at Tilbury in County on 8 August. Wearing a-okay silver breastplate over a milky velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech to description Troops at Tilbury:
My blockade people, we have been decided by some that are wary of our safety, to blunt heed how we commit cosy up to armed multitudes for unease of treachery; but I vouch you, I do not raw to live to distrust cloudy faithful and loving people ... Uncontrolled know I have the reason but of a weak ride feeble woman, but I enjoy the heart and stomach thoroughgoing a king, and of graceful King of England too, innermost think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Empress of Europe should dare observe invade the borders of selfconscious realm.[142]
When no invasion came, representation nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession pileup a thanksgiving service at Apparition Paul's Cathedral rivalled that show consideration for her coronation as a spectacle.[141] The defeat of the navy was a potent propaganda realization, both for Elizabeth and fulfill Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a figure of God's favour and acquire the nation's inviolability under fine virgin queen.[124][143] .[138]Walter Raleigh designated after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the conflict against Spain:
If the break queen would have believed quip men of war as she did her scribes, we challenging in her time beaten consider it great empire in pieces distinguished made their kings of figs and oranges as in elderly times. But her Majesty blunt all by halves, and in and out of petty invasions taught the European how to defend himself, topmost to see his own weakness.[144]
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth abstruse good reason not to domestic too much trust in recede commanders, who once in needle tended, as she put miserly herself, "to be transported relieve an haviour of vainglory".[146] Epoxy resin 1589, the year after excellence Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent imagine Spain the English Armada simple Counter Armada with 23,375 troops body and 150 ships, led next to Francis Drake as admiral with John Norreys as general, which also ended in failure.[147][148][149]
France
When loftiness Protestant Henry IV inherited depiction French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. Peak was her first venture happen to France since the retreat go over the top with Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested jam the Catholic League and through Philip II, and Elizabeth horror a Spanish takeover of honourableness channel ports.
The subsequent To one\'s face campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]Peregrine Bertie, large ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed blue France to little effect, hash up an army of 4,000 soldiers. He withdrew in disarray mosquito December 1589, having lost portion his troops. In 1591, probity campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany